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Introduction

The reasonings behind magazine's effect on female behaviour has only been partly uncovered, and this is where my interest lies. Considering the vast genres and subgenres available to the everyday consumer, it is essential that an overarching viewpoint is conducted, taking into account that different magazines may offer differing opinions. The central theme of this paper will explore the impact of editorial design (specifically magazines) from a feminist perspective, with a discussion of design being present in an attempt to outline its effects upon the consumer.

What is feminism?

Before highlighting the key concepts of feminism, it is essential that the differences between gender and sex are defined. Sex refers to the anatomy of the reproductive system, whereas gender refers to the social roles in which have been constructed towards the sexs. An example of this is that women are socially expected to appear feminine, and men masculine. Therefore feminism can be characterized as an anti-establishment movement.

Feminism as a concept is simply the advocacy of sex equality, with regard to the deconstruction of the patriarchy. With feminism attempting to dismantle the androcentric format in which is ingrained within societies structure. The Dictionary of critical theory characterizes feminism as the advocacy of women's rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes. Despite feminism combating all forms of gender bias, feminism is regularly perceived as a women’s cause through misinterpretation, a damaging fallacy. Although stating that the core concepts are not one sided, feminism does explore strong roots in the elimination of female oppression by the patriarchy, as this is where the main gender bias in society lies. An example of feminism being for both sexes is that of the Fawcett society's campaign, ‘This is what a feminist looks like’. Using high profile celebrities of both sexes, the campaign attempts to remove the negative connotations of feminism, and remind individuals that feminism is simply the advocacy of equal rights. Although the majority of cultures and societies no longer openly emphasize gender as a basis of compromise, subconscious roots are still drawn into which position individuals based on their birth gender. To understand why these preconceived notions are still implanted within society's structure it is key that a focus is placed upon how the media attempt to construct this imbalance, promoting capitalist gain.

Reviewing feminisms origin through a chronological narrative of movements, it is common practice to reference the three waves of modern feminism. However, it is important to note that this configuration does not incorporate any efforts of equality made before the late eighteenth century. The first wave of feminism (1870-1930) is the earliest reference point to the rejection of society's structure by suffragettes. The political agenda of these consciously united feminists fixated upon the rights of women, and their need of political and social freedom, in reference to equality. The successive wave of feminism to follow was that of second wave feminism. Emerging out to World War II, a new form of feminism was born. The second wave of feminism (1960-1990) broadened the debate of female issues, focusing its efforts upon sexuality and reproductive rights, outlining that to be a women you do not have to bare child. With civil right becoming a influencing factor throughout this period. The approvement of ‘the pill’ by the Food and Drug Administration (1959) was to successfully promote change, bringing on a broad social, economic and political adjustment. ‘The whole anti-establishment movement was happening. People were willing to think outside the norm, and this was just one more way’ (Cohen, 2005) Cohen, a professor at Marymount College, highlighted that people’s ideologies surrounding women were altering, removing the previous rigid expectations of femininity, and what it is to be female.

The next successive wave, and essentially the most important in terms of editorial design, was that of third wave feminism. The third wave of feminism (established in the 1990’s) is widely known for its destabilising phase, removing connotations surrounding body image, gender and sexuality. These third wave characteristics being embedded within equality today. This phase saw men and women alike promoting feminist values, with young feminists presenting female beauty for themselves and not for the patriarchy. Martha Rampton from The Pacific University of Oregon suggested that third wave feminists ‘developed a rhetoric of mimicry [in order] to subvert sexist culture’. (Rampton, 2015) In turn awarding women a power in which they did not previously have. The power of their bodies. Academia was rife throughout this period, with multiple extracts being developed relating to this phase, questioning what traditional femininity means. This was directly highlighted by Liesbet Van Zoonen, who suggests within Feminist Media Studies, that ‘The women’s movement is not only engaged in a material struggle about equal rights and opportunities for women, but also in a symbolic conflict about definition of femininity (and by omission of masculinity)’ (Zoonen, 1994) Zoonen therefore commenting that traditional femininity is a preconceived notion in which divides males and females, outlining how they should behave. In conjunction to this Jukes suggests that ‘Sexism seems to be a function of gender division or differentiation; therefore one is to some extent, trapped in attempting to account for this.’ (Jukes, 1993). The language used in this extract, specifically the term ‘trapped in attempting to account for this’ would propose that Jukes opinion remains that society will not balance sex roles until gender is dismantled, relating to postfeminism. Aiding both Zoonen and Jukes, Firestone suggests that ‘Humanity has begun to transcend Nature: we can no longer justify the maintenance of a discriminatory sex class system on the grounds of its origins in nature.’ (Firestone, 1970) This extract therefore implies that biology, and sex, have little correlation towards gender bias. In relation to Jukes this would offer the opinion that the ‘gender division or differentiation’, in which he mentions, is directly correlated to society's construction of gender. When relating this to Zoonen, and the ‘omission of masculinity’ by females,  it may be conveyed that this is a direct result of social constructs, and the ways in which society is formatted.

What is a magazine?

Johannes Gutenberg’s 1940’s invention, of the printing press, allowed publications to be mass produced for the first time in history, removing the previous hardship of replicated copies. According to professor Francis Bacon, the printing press “changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world.” This meaning that smaller publications such as leaflets and magazines could be developed at a more economic price. Since this pivotal moment, the magazine industry has grown rapidly, with ‘UK consumers spend[ing] an estimated £2.5bn on magazines in 2013.’ (The Creative Industries, 2017)

In specific terms a magazine may be defined as a publication containing articles and illustrations often promoting a certain genre, or aimed at a specific demographic. Julia Meer conveys that ‘a book or magazine is an inward volume of pages reflecting out on the world's events and ideas.’ with ‘designers use[ing] words and images to directly engage the physical environment.’(Breuer and Meer, 2012) The term ‘directly engage the physical environment’ would suggest that graphical outputs physically envisage written context, as a form of visual language. Meers ideologies surrounding a magazines visuals are further embedded with her suggesting that a magazine ‘is a physical artifact and mode of communication’. (Breuer and Meer, 2012) The language Meer uses within the preceding quote, would suggest that a magazine is an articulation of conversation, in which suggests opinions and beliefs. This differing to a newspaper, in which is suppose to recall non-bias readings of notable events, weather and sports. Although magazines have no law restrictions on embedding the truth, it is essential that the subjective messages in which these magazines portray are accurate, and do not inflict disservice to minority groups. Zoonen highlights that ‘media reflect[s] society’s dominant social values’. (Zoonen, 1994) ‘Reflect’, being a critical word in this case, as the consumer often mimics what they see within the media, with further opinions being based, the hypodermic needle model is a key example of this. Considering the opinions of both Meer and Zoonen, it may therefore be correlated that a magazine acts as a physical mode of communication, in which can position an audience to act and behave in a certain manner.

Womens magazines

According to the Women’s Library, The Ladies Diary (1728), comprised of a compendium of puzzles, and advice, is the first recorded women’s magazine. Printed media was only to gain more popularity as decades progressed, with further female specific publications being addressed. Pegs Paper,1926, was recorded, by the Women's Library, as the first weekly publication to specifically target a working class, female readership. As accessibility to women’s weeklies began to rise, so did the variety of female publications available to the everyday consumer: Cosmopolitan, Good Housekeeping and Everywomen, being a few titles to mention. Gaining their popularity during the 60’s, these publications promoted the female ideology of the time: the mother, the housekeeper, the baker. Cosmopolitan's,1968, cover is a key example of this. (See Figure Two).

In reference to the second wave of feminism, female editors began developing publications challenging traditional gender roles. MS. magazine, co-founded by second wave feminists, is a key example of this. As listed as a feminist magazine, the readership was restricted to feminists, as the relevant content did not appeal to women of a lower demographic who had previously been indoctrinated by the traditional women’s magazines. As a result conventional women’s magazines still maintained the market advantage, with feminist publications being the niche. This can be visually recognised by the variety of covers developed during Cosmopolitans success (See Figures Three, Four and Five).

When outlining what a women’s magazine is, it may be referred to as a deliverable in which is specifically coded towards the female gender. Key signifiers are often coded in an attempt to resemble this. Whilst they are often mentioned as a collective, ‘women's magazines’ encompass an assortment of contrasting genres. The vast majority of printed deliverables range from weekly publications (notably Heat, Chat and Closer), to monthly publications (such as Elle). As magazines are a physical mode of communication, and a contribute to the broader realm of ideas and values it may be questionable whether they are personally responsible for the remaining misconceptions surrounding womanhood.

David Gauntlett, a socialist and media theorist suggests that ‘Women’s magazines are, of course, all about the social construction of womanhood today’ (GAUNTLETT, 2008)  In other words, Gauntlett embodies the idea that social representations are envisioned throughout women’s magazine, these being derived from social influence. Therefore underlying themes within societies structure frame the editorial of a magazine. Gauntlett goes onto state

‘The magazines are accused of suggesting that a man is the route to happiness; the implication is therefore that the magazines are reproducing a smartened-up version of the old fashioned idea that if women manage to be sufficiently lovely and fragrant, then they will be fortunate enough to have a man.’ (GAUNTLETT, 2008) The concept of needing a man to please has been an ideology in which has been ingrained within womanhood throughout editorial design historically, a key example of being an article from 1970’s february issue of cosmopolitan, listed as ‘Are you a good lover’, this encompasses a sexualized image of a female, subject to the male gaze.(See Figure One) Wykes and Gunter suggest that the over sexualization of women devalues them, presenting them as merely sexual objects.

‘sexualized or trivializing representations of women were and remain seen as not only degrading but likely to incite male oppression and even sexual violence’.(Wykes and Gunter, 2005) The idea that media constructs alongside graphical outcomes are able to encourage forms of oppression and sexual violence are detrimental. When understanding the usage of sex within a magazine's aesthetic, it is essential the reasonings behind this are envisaged. In terms, it may be outlined that society’s pass on their social heritage throughout generations. In times of rapid social change, society's needs for continuity and the repetition of dominant values may be acute. As individuals need some form of connection to the past, if the society is to subsist, these values are often re-lifted, but to survive they also must be adapted. This being immediately identifiable in the area of sex roles. This ideology is supported by Zoonen.

In conjunction to Gauntlett, this would help suggest why ‘magazines are accused of suggesting that a man is the route to happiness’, as traditionally the woman was seen to not function sufficiently without a male companion. When further relating this further to Wykes and Gunter, it may be highlighted that ‘sexual violence’, is also a key feature in which to consider. As the passing of male dominance can be a physical interaction, as well as a social construction.

A visual example of how women today are constructed within these gender ideals can be envisioned within Cosmopolitans 2013 cover featuring Kim Kardashian (See Figure Six).

The protagonist, Kim Kardashian West, is the consumers first point of contact. With cosmopolitan’s lead readership being that of 18-24 year old females, (according to statistics from compilations media kit), it is evident as to why Kim has been selected. Kim Kardashian, a cultural icon, is a highly influential socialite amongst this demographic, this being evident through her 104 million Instagram followers. Therefore, her presence, almost instantaneity becomes a key selling point of the magazine.

The cover image itself promotes a direct mode of address, this is envisioned through the direct eye contact promoted between the protagonist and the consumer. This not only keeping the consumer engaged but also creating a relationship between them and the consumer. The body language presented subtly advocates provocatively. With one hand being situated upon her hip, she has been strategically positioned in order to outline her hourglass physique. The draped nature of her dress adorns her shoulders, emphasising her collar bones, as well as her cleavage. This presenting the protagonist in a male gaze format, subtly objectifying her. Although emphasising her curves, Kim promotes a petite body frame, the beauty ideal. No imperfections are notable within the image suggesting that Photoshop has been used in order to promote perfected skin, alongside unrealistic expectations of the body. Consuming three quarters of the cover, it is evident that Kim's physique is the key factor within this editorial design. As Kim Kardashian has portrayed many postfeminist reasonings as to her self-exhibition, this challenges a dispute amongst different feminist groups. The ideology of postfeminism is generally identified as the preceding of feminism. Postfeminism as a concept, strives for the future of gender related societal progress, and as such is frequently perceived as promoting a society that is not defined by gender. In relation to the Cosmopolitan cover, it may be commented that Kim Kardashian is presented in a manner in which is provocative. In a society whereby gender is no longer enforced, it would be suggested that in some forms this is a feminist act, promoting the ideology that the naked female body is neutral, non-sexualised and natural. However, in relation to third wave feminism, it would be stated that we are currently not in a society that promotes this gender related equilibrium. As a result of this, third wave feminists would contest the feminist routes behind the cover, suggesting that to be sexual means that you are not promoting feminism; that you’re promoting objectification, and as a result are invalidating your feminist values. As Kim Kardashian was paid to appear upon the cover, this further denotes a lack of any feminist values, as capitalist gain has been promoted through objectification.

When considering the type implications of the editorial design, it is evident that a clear hierarchy is present, with page divisions sublimely being made. The masthead appears within its traditional location, defining a clear reference point. A range of techniques have been devised in terms of the typographic format in order to promote distinctive opinions. The main cover line 'LOOK BETTER NAKED', appears within capital letters in order to showcase that this is an essential element of the magazine, drawing the consumers attention. The theoretical message behind this could subjectively suggest that the consumer doesn't already look good naked, again reinforcing image ideals. The word 'NAKED' is specifically enlarged in order to promote hierarchy within the design. This giving the opinion that the consumer should alter their naked body, in order to appear desirable. A smaller tag line positioned beneath reads, 'What Kim Kardashian Eats to Look THIS Smokin''. The variation of upper and lowercase letters in this instance presents further hierarchy, with an emphasis being placed on 'THIS'. It may be suggested that this word has been specifically highlighted as it gives the illusion that all women, if they try hard enough, can look like the protagonist. As Cosmopolitan themselves have conducted multiple articles suggesting that Kim Kardashian has undergone plastic surgery (‘Kardashians before and after surgery’, an article uploaded to their webpage in march 2016), it may be suggested that Cosmopolitan are enforcing a body image in which is not natural, and that the consumer will never be able to naturally gain. Other key attributes to the covers design include the secondary cover lines. Again, the subversion of type characteristics have been used in order to promote hierarchal anchorage. The title 'The SEX QUIZ You Must Take' is a key example of this. By highlighting the word 'SEX', this gains instant attention from the consumer. This is followed by the tagline 'Get What You've Always Wanted In Bed', this therefore suggesting that the female is not sexually satisfied. The article itself also directly focuses upon heterosexual relationships, and therefore is bias.

In terms of colour, pink and purple are significantly used in order to promote femininity, a lazy shorthand to convey the publication as a women's outlet.

Women’s magazines have gained large criticisms, from theorists such as Gauntlett, surrounding the ways in which they make women feel about their body image. Their admiration of the beauty ideal, which most women would not be able to achieve, takes up valuable time and money from the female consumer. The countless pages highlighting ways to improve their appearance, sexual capabilities and personalities, are likely to make the readership feel inadequate. In relation to the Kim Kardashian cover, it is apparent that all these key features are signified. The beauty ideal being Kim Kardashian, sex tips being advised, and unhealthy diets being promoted. Davis suggests that ‘ it is sometimes said that ‘since those who control the media are almost all (rich) men, there is every incentive for them to present the capitalist, patriarchal scheme of things as the most attractive system available- and to convince the less privileged that the oppression and limitations of their lives are inevitable’ Davies, k., dickey, j. And stratford,t. (eds) (1987) Out of focus: writing on women and the media. London:the women's press  In conjunction to the previous statement, Davis would suggest that the reason behind women’s self loathing is that it is socially constructed by patriarchy in order to sustain hegemonic masculinity. This not only benefiting the male in patriarchal terms, but also capitalist. Berger supports this by suggesting that ‘Capitalism survives by forcing the majority, whom it exploits, to define their own interests as narrowly as possible. This was once achieved by extensive deprivation. Today in developed countries it is being achieved by imposing a false standard of what us and what is not desirable’ berger j 1972 ways of seeing london bbc and penguin

Similar to Davis, Berger states that capitalism survives by exploiting groups to promote patriarchal desires. It may be therefore suggested that this beauty ideal has been constructed in order to impose the ‘false standard’ suggested by Berger. Therefore in this case, Kim Kardashian, who has been heavily airbrushed is the ideal, an unrealistic goal. In turn this promotes female’s to feel inadequate. This also applying to other cultural icons, an example being Mariah Carey’s cover for Paper Magazine (See Figure 7)

Women’s and men's magazines

As Zoonen suggests ‘Since we are born into societies that have labelled a particular difference between human beings woman vs man, and related difference as feminine vs masculine, we come to think of ourselves in these terms: as being and feeling man, or being and feeling woman. -zoonen It is evident that these distinctive socially constructed differences are presented through everyday life, and have even being captured stereotypically within men’s and women’s magazines.

Men’s magazines

Men’s magazines, specifically lads mags, increased in sales after the launch of loaded with further magazines capturing this new marketing technique. The renovated lad label first appeared within mainstream media during the early 1990’s, as they promoted their own shift away from the heavy coding present within publications of the time, this offered a fresh perspective to the consumer. Larger publications of the time, such as GQ and Arena, embodied this title, resulting in over sexualised imagery and examinations of women. As GQ and Arena, two of the leading publications of the time, ‘marked’ this transition, smaller publications were to mimic these sexist trends in order to gain a more substantial readership. Since this pivotal moment, the ways in which men’s magazines present women was to completely alter, taking up a tangent of sexist remarks and iconography. Adorning shelves for over 15 years, Nuts, FHM, ZOO and GQ embodied the sexist trends at the time, dismissing feminists and feminism. The demining, pornographic imagery of women amplified the female body as part of an everyday visual language. Situating women in a position of objectification. Zoonen suggests that this objectification largely relates to how women are situated within patriarchal culture. ‘A core element of Western patriarchal culture is the display of woman as spectacle to be looked at, subjected to the gaze of the (male) audience. Pornography is the obvious genre  build on the exhibition a women's bodies as objects of desire,  fantasy and violence.-zoonen In relation to Nixon, Zoonen suggests that these forms of objectification are rp[p[ooted within the patriarchal, western culture. Therefore the reasons behind this degrading perspective, have been captured by large publications in order to promote capitalist gain. In conjunction to this, Jackson suggests that ‘The industries ‘public front of playfulness’, spontaneity and informality not only masks some of the realities of editorial work, and supports gendered connotations of hedonistic sociability, it also points to the ‘willingness of magazine journalists...temporarily to reinvent themselves’ to suit the demands of the occupation’ Jackson P, stevenson and brooks making sense of men’s magazines, polity press, cambridge   In relation to Nixon and Zoonen, Jackson suggests that as the industry promotes these misogynistic characteristics playfully, they are able to subtly code the consumer to participate in patriarchal tendencies. Therefore the ornamentation of the female body appears natural.

When outlining specifically how a men’s magazines are constructed, it is key to mention the progress in which has occurred over the past quarter of a century. Similar to how Clare Short, a British Labour Member of Parliament, had contested the topless page 3 girls back in the 80’s, feminists started to contest these editorials in which specify in the objectification of women. A key example of this is the campaign to remove ‘lads mags’ from Tesco's shelves (See figure 7). Through a tremendous amount of debate, scrutiny and protest, feminist values began to override the pre-existing sexist system. This is evident through the visual representation of women within GQ. (See figure 8) The juxtaposition between the two covers is remarkable, as without the masthead, the two would not appear to be from the same publication. The Kim Kardashian cover explores the male gaze, with a provocative image of Kim being used, alongside androcentric sex tips. Whereas the Leonardo Dicaprio cover explores a male protagonist, promoting articles of health and politics. These two images alongside one another clearly promote the change in which the magazine has transitioned through as a result of feminist consciousness, as the Kim Kardashian cover was devised first. The change can be further promoted by the demise of the traditional lads mag, as FHM and ZOO closed at the end of 2015. Leading way for men's magazines in which do not promote negativity towards females, for example men’s health.

Is feminism having a positive effect on women’s magazines?

Although it is evident that feminism is having a positive effect on men’s magazines, through the lesser objectification of the female and the demise of the ‘lads mag’, it is uncertain whether this can be said about women’s magazines as they still contain strict coding. Multiple mainstream female publications use feminism as a branding technique, whilst not promoting a pro-feminist voice. Elle’s November 2013 issue ceremoniously decided to reinvent feminism, promoting a rebrand. The campaign promoted a range of deliverables, including simple flowcharts outlining whether you are a feminist or not, this coinciding with adverts challenging women to discuss pay equality. Although gaining attention through their social media handle, #IAmAWomanAnd, it was questioned by many online articles whether this was an attempt to gain equality, or a marketing technique. The Huffington Post writer, Kord, suggested that ‘Rebranding is something you do to, well, a brand: a commodity that you are attempting to sell to the consumer.’ (Kord, 2017) Therefore it is evident from Kord's perspective that Elle’s intentions were capitalist, not feminist, as they are selling the idea of feminism, not promoting it.

Other mainstream female publications including Closer, Heat, and Bliss, bypass this capitalist feminism, still promoting damaging images of women, portrayed in unnatural, unrealistic forms. This being outlined by Gauntlett, within Media, gender and identity, ‘Women’s magazines continue to create-and exploit- women’s anxiety’. Promoting the idea that making women feel negatively about themselves is a key selling point. In conjunction to this, Wykes and Gunter suggest that ‘Blaming the media for reproducing and extolling representations of unrealistic female bodies that influence young women to starve themselves has almost become a popular truism.’ Wykes and Gunter, therefore agree with Gauntlett’s idea of female exploitation, with themselves suggesting that the media’s usage of desirable females has left women starving themselves in order to maintain the beauty ideal so popularly presented. Zoonen highlights this further, considering a feminist perspective.  ‘Many feminist authors have pointed to the devastating effects that this ‘to-be-looked-at-ness’  might have on ordinary women.’ In agreement to Gauntlett, Wykes and Gunter,and Zoonen highlight that ordinary women are affected by the editorial design of glossy, women’s magazines. Outlining how this can be injurious to women and their physical insecurities.

As traditional women’s magazines hold devastating effects for women, it must be noted that niche feminist publications are gaining more popularity. As these publications, (such as Mushpit, Sister and Ladybeard) provide an outlet for women who are no longer interested in the hegemonic framework presented in traditional women’s magazines. Although stating this, it must also be outlined that conventional women’s magazines remain at the top of the industry, gaining the most attention.

As the media is at the forefront of the feminist critique it may be suggested that the information within women’s magazines has not changed but rather so the attitudes and approaches towards it. Van Zoonen suggests that ‘The feminist calls for more realistic images of women and definitions of femininity’, promoting that large injustices are still embedded within female publications, and that the consumers are contesting it. What the media reveals is no longer the public belief, as individuals are beginning to challenge the information they receive. Examples of this can be seen on social media platforms, in the comments of magazine articles, with a variety of debates being displayed.

As the media is still vastly dominated by male editors, it may be suggested that the more female editors, the more realistic the women’s content would become. Zoonen states ‘ an increase of women communicators would imply an improvement of the representation of women and femininity.’ -van zoonen As a result of this it may be commented that to promote equality within written media, there must be female editors who are to develop content that is appropriate to feminists and non-feminist alike. And so, the more female editors, the less derogatory marketing skills appearing present within the media.

What do I need to do?

• Ensure all referencing is correct
• complete conclusion
• Ensure all figures are correct
• Remove larger quotes/put in my own words
• Create linking sentences between paragraphs